Views: 0
White, G. M. Recent findings in the epidemiologic evidence, classification, and subtypes of acne vulgaris. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 39, S34–S37 (1998).
Vos, T. et al. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease study 2010. Lancet 380, 2163–2196 (2012).
Gollnick, H. P. & Finlay, A. Y., Shear, N. & Global Alliance to Improve Outcomes in Acne. Can we define acne as a chronic disease? If so, how and when? Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 9, 279–284 (2008). An important article suggesting the chronic nature of acne.
Burton, J. L., Cunliffe, W. J., Stafford, I. & Shuster, S. The prevalence of acne vulgaris in adolescence. Br. J. Dermatol. 85, 119–126 (1971).
Ghodsi, S. Z., Orawa, H. & Zouboulis, C. C. Prevalence, severity, and severity risk factors of acne in high school pupils: a community-based study. J. Invest. Dermatol. 129, 2136–2141 (2009). A well-planned epidemiological study on acne and a review of the literature.
Thiboutot, D. et al. New insights into the management of acne: an update from the Global Alliance to Improve Outcomes in Acne group. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 60, S1–S50 (2009). This paper presents an update of the 2003 guideline of the Global Alliance to Improve Outcomes in Acne group, which includes comprehensive data about acne and its management.
Dreno, B. & Poli, F. Epidemiology of acne. Dermatology 206, 7–10 (2003).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. NAMCS factsheet for dermatology. CDC[online], (2010). A factsheet that provides the most recent US data about dermatology visits.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Annual number and percent distribution of ambulatory care visits by setting type according to diagnosis group: United States, 2009–2010. CDC[online], (2010).
Wilmer, E. N. et al. Most common dermatologic conditions encountered by dermatologists and nondermatologists. Cutis 94, 285–292 (2014). This article presents updated demographic data of dermatology visits in the United States.
Yentzer, B. A. et al. Acne vulgaris in the United States: a descriptive epidemiology. Cutis 86, 94–99 (2010).
McConnell, R. C., Fleischer, A. B., Williford, P. M. & Feldman, S. R. Most topical tretinoin treatment is for acne vulgaris through the age of 44 years: an analysis of the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, 1990–1994. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 38, 221–226 (1998).
Goulden, V., Clark, S. M. & Cunliffe, W. J. Post-adolescent acne: a review of clinical features. Br. J. Dermatol. 136, 66–70 (1997).
Landis, E. T., Davis, S. A., Taheri, A. & Feldman, S. R. Top dermatologic diagnoses by age. Dermatol. Online J. 20, 22368 (2014).
Goldberg, J. L. et al. Changing age of acne vulgaris visits: another sign of earlier puberty? Pediatr. Dermatol. 28, 645–648 (2011).
Davis, S. A. et al. Top dermatologic conditions in patients of color: an analysis of nationally representative data. J. Drugs Dermatol. 11, 466–473 (2012).
Perkins, A. C., Cheng, C. E., Hillebrand, G. G., Miyamoto, K. & Kimball, A. B. Comparison of the epidemiology of acne vulgaris among Caucasian, Asian, Continental Indian and African American women. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 25, 1054–1060 (2011).
Bickers, D. R. et al. The burden of skin diseases: 2004 a joint project of the American Academy of Dermatology Association and the Society for Investigative Dermatology. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 55, 490–500 (2006).
Zouboulis, C. C. Acne as a chronic systemic disease. Clin. Dermatol. 32, 389–396 (2014). This article reviews the association of acne with non-dermatological disorders, indicating that acne could occasionally be a cutaneous phenotype of systemic diseases.
Zouboulis, C. C., Jourdan, E. & Picardo, M. Acne is an inflammatory disease and alterations of sebum composition initiate acne lesions. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 28, 527–532 (2014). In this review, the authors present evidence that acne is induced by changes in sebum lipid composition and not only by increased seborhhoea.
Das, S. & Reynolds, R. V. Recent advances in acne pathogenesis: implications for therapy. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 15, 479–488 (2014). This review article associates the recent advances in the knowledge in acne pathogenesis with new potential compound candidates for acne treatment.
Goulden, V., McGeown, C. H. & Cunliffe, W. J. The familial risk of adult acne: a comparison between first-degree relatives of affected and unaffected individuals. Br. J. Dermatol. 141, 297–300 (1999).
Herane, M. I. & Ando, I. Acne in infancy and acne genetics. Dermatology 206, 24–28 (2003).
Evans, D. M., Kirk, K. M., Nyholt, D. R., Novac, C. & Martin, N. G. Teenage acne is influenced by genetic factors. Br. J. Dermatol. 152, 579–581 (2005).
Ju, Q. et al. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin alters sebaceous gland cell differentiation in vitro. Exp. Dermatol. 20, 320–325 (2011).
Valeyrie-Allanore, L., Sassolas, B. & Roujeau, J. C. Drug-induced skin, nail and hair disorders. Drug Saf. 30, 1011–1030 (2007).
Melnik, B. C., John, S. M. & Schmitz, G. Over-stimulation of insulin/IGF-1 signaling by western diet may promote diseases of civilization: lessons learnt from laron syndrome. Nutr. Metab. (Lond.) 8, 41 (2011).
Mahmood, S. N. & Bowe, W. P. Diet and acne update: carbohydrates emerge as the main culprit. J. Drugs Dermatol. 13, 428–435 (2014).
Wolkenstein, P. et al. Smoking and dietary factors associated with moderate-to-severe acne in French adolescents and young adults: results of a survey using a representative sample. Dermatology 230, 34–39 (2015).
Albuquerque, R. G., Rocha, M. A., Bagatin, E., Tufik, S. & Andersen, M. L. Could adult female acne be associated with modern life? Arch. Dermatol. Res. 306, 683–688 (2014).
Zouboulis, C. C., Schagen, S. & Alestas, T. The sebocyte culture: a model to study the pathophysiology of the sebaceous gland in sebostasis, seborrhoea and acne. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 300, 397–413 (2008).
Dahlhoff, M., de Angelis, M. H., Wolf, E. & Schneider, M. R. Ligand-independent epidermal growth factor receptor hyperactivation increases sebaceous gland size and sebum secretion in mice. Exp. Dermatol. 22, 667–669 (2013).
Camera, E., Dahlhoff, M., Ludovici, M., Zouboulis, C. C. & Schneider, M. R. Perilipin 3 modulates specific lipogenic pathways in SZ95 sebocytes. Exp. Dermatol. 23, 759–761 (2014).
Dahlhoff, M. et al. PLIN2, the major perilipin regulated during sebocyte differentiation, controls sebaceous lipid accumulation in vitro and sebaceous gland size in vivo. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1830, 4642–4649 (2013).
Choi, C. W., Choi, J. W., Park, K. C. & Youn, S. W. Facial sebum affects the development of acne, especially the distribution of inflammatory acne. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 27, 301–306 (2013).
Mourelatos, K., Eady, E. A., Cunliffe, W. J., Clark, S. M. & Cove, J. H. Temporal changes in sebum excretion and propionibacterial colonization in preadolescent children with and without acne. Br. J. Dermatol. 156, 22–31 (2007).
Pappas, A. The relationship of diet and acne: a review. Dermatoendocrinol. 1, 262–267 (2009).
Stewart, M. E. Sebaceous gland lipids. Semin. Dermatol. 11, 100–105 (1992).
Downing, D. T., Stewart, M. E., Wertz, P. W. & Strauss, J. S. Essential fatty acids and acne. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 14, 221–225 (1986).
Zouboulis, C. C. Acne and sebaceous gland function. Clin. Dermatol. 22, 360–366 (2004).
Ottaviani, M. et al. Peroxidated squalene induces the production of inflammatory mediators in HaCaT keratinocytes: a possible role in acne vulgaris. J. Invest. Dermatol. 126, 2430–2437 (2006).
Smith, R. N., Braue, A., Varigos, G. A. & Mann, N. J. The effect of a low glycemic load diet on acne vulgaris and the fatty acid composition of skin surface triglycerides. J. Dermatol. Sci. 50, 41–52 (2008).
Pappas, A., Fantasia, J. & Chen, T. Age and ethnic variations in sebaceous lipids. Dermato-endocrinology 5, 319–324 (2013).
da Cunha, M. G., Fonseca, F. L. & Machado, C. D. Androgenic hormone profile of adult women with acne. Dermatology 226, 167–171 (2013).
Wei, B. et al. Higher 17α-hydroxyprogesterone levels aggravated the severity of male adolescent acne in northeast China. Dermatology 229, 359–362 (2014).
Makrantonaki, E. et al. Interplay of IGF-I and 17β-estradiol at age-specific levels in human sebocytes and fibroblasts in vitro. Exp. Gerontol. 43, 939–946 (2008).
Slominski, A. et al. Steroidogenesis in the skin: implications for local immune functions. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 137, 107–123 (2013). This article reviews the current knowledge on cutaneous steroidogenesis and its implications in skin diseases, including acne.
Krause, K., Schnitger, A., Fimmel, S., Glass, E. & Zouboulis, C. C. Corticotropin-releasing hormone skin signaling is receptor-mediated and is predominant in the sebaceous glands. Horm. Metab. Res. 39, 166–170 (2007).
Zouboulis, C. C. et al. Corticotropin-releasing hormone: an autocrine hormone that promotes lipogenesis in human sebocytes. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 99, 7148–7153 (2002).
Sansone, G. & Reisner, R. M. Differential rates of conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone in acne and in normal human skin — a possible pathogenic factor in acne. J. Invest. Dermatol. 56, 366–372 (1971).
Pochi, P. E. & Strauss, J. S. Sebaceous gland response in man to the administration of testosterone, Δ4-androstenedione, and dehydroisoandrosterone. J. Invest. Dermatol. 52, 32–36 (1969).
Giltay, E. J. & Gooren, L. J. Effects of sex steroid deprivation/administration on hair growth and skin sebum production in transsexual males and females. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85, 2913–2921 (2000).
Rosenfield, R. L., Deplewski, D., Kentsis, A. & Ciletti, N. Mechanisms of androgen induction of sebocyte differentiation. Dermatology 196, 43–46 (1998).
Chen, W., Yang, C. C., Sheu, H. M., Seltmann, H. & Zouboulis, C. C. Expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein transcription factors in cultured human sebocytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 121, 441–447 (2003).
Zouboulis, C. C. et al. What is the pathogenesis of acne? Exp. Dermatol. 14, 143–152 (2005).
Inoue, T. et al. Expression of steroidogenic enzymes in human sebaceous glands. J. Endocrinol. 222, 301–312 (2014).
Lee, S. E., Kim, J. M., Jeong, M. K., Zouboulis, C. C. & Lee, S. H. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 is expressed in human sebaceous glands and regulates glucocorticoid-induced lipid synthesis and Toll-like receptor 2 expression in SZ95 sebocytes. Br. J. Dermatol. 168, 47–55 (2013).
Aizawa, H. & Niimura, M. Elevated serum insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) levels in women with postadolescent acne. J. Dermatol. 22, 249–252 (1995).
Cappel, M., Mauger, D. & Thiboutot, D. Correlation between serum levels of insulin-like growth factor 1, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, and dihydrotestosterone and acne lesion counts in adult women. Arch. Dermatol. 141, 333–338 (2005).
Vora, S., Ovhal, A., Jerajani, H., Nair, N. & Chakrabortty, A. Correlation of facial sebum to serum insulin-like growth factor 1 in patients with acne. Br. J. Dermatol. 159, 990–991 (2008).
Rudman, S. M., Philpott, M. P., Thomas, G. A. & Kealey, T. The role of IGF-I in human skin and its appendages: morphogen as well as mitogen? J. Invest. Dermatol. 109, 770–777 (1997).
Deplewski, D. & Rosenfield, R. L. Growth hormone and insulin-like growth factors have different effects on sebaceous cell growth and differentiation. Endocrinology 140, 4089–4094 (1999). This article reviews the complex regulation of sebaceous gland action through the growth hormone and IGF1 signalling cascade.
Tavakkol, A., Varani, J., Elder, J. T. & Zouboulis, C. C. Maintenance of human skin in organ culture: role for insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor and epidermal growth factor receptor. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 291, 643–651 (1999).
Smith, T. M., Cong, Z., Gilliland, K. L., Clawson, G. A. & Thiboutot, D. M. Insulin-like growth factor-1 induces lipid production in human SEB-1 sebocytes via sterol response element-binding protein-1. J. Invest. Dermatol. 126, 1226–1232 (2006).
Smith, T. M., Gilliland, K., Clawson, G. A. & Thiboutot, D. IGF-1 induces SREBP-1 expression and lipogenesis in SEB-1 sebocytes via activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt pathway. J. Invest. Dermatol. 128, 1286–1293 (2008).
Melnik, B. C. & Zouboulis, C. C. Potential role of FoxO1 and mTORC1 in the pathogenesis of Western diet-induced acne. Exp. Dermatol. 22, 311–315 (2013).
Blanchard, P. G. et al. Major involvement of mTOR in the PPARγ-induced stimulation of adipose tissue lipid uptake and fat accretion. J. Lipid Res. 53, 1117–1125 (2012).
Bakan, I. & Laplante, M. Connecting mTORC1 signaling to SREBP-1 activation. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 23, 226–234 (2012).
Rosignoli, C., Nicolas, J. C., Jomard, A. & Michel, S. Involvement of the SREBP pathway in the mode of action of androgens in sebaceous glands in vivo. Exp. Dermatol. 12, 480–489 (2003).
Ganceviciene, R., Graziene, V., Fimmel, S. & Zouboulis, C. C. Involvement of the corticotropin-releasing hormone system in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol. 160, 345–352 (2009). This paper provides evidence for the role of neuropeptides, and especially of the most upstream hypothalamic hormone corticotropin-releasing hormone, in the function of the sebaceous gland and the development of stress-induced acne.
Zhang, L., Li, W. H., Anthonavage, M. & Eisinger, M. Melanocortin 5 receptor: a marker of human sebocyte differentiation. Peptides 27, 413–420 (2006).
Ganceviciene, R., Böhm, M., Fimmel, S. & Zouboulis, C. C. The role of neuropeptides in the multifactorial pathogenesis of acne vulgaris. Dermatoendocrinol. 1, 170–176 (2009).
Toyoda, M., Nakamura, M. & Morohashi, M. Neuropeptides and sebaceous glands. Eur. J. Dermatol. 12, 422–427 (2002). This article describes the effects of downstream neuropeptides on sebaceous glands and their diseases.
Thielitz, A. et al. Inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase IV and aminopeptidase N target major pathogenetic steps in acne initiation. J. Invest. Dermatol. 127, 1042–1051 (2007).
Zouboulis, C. C. Is acne vulgaris a genuine inflammatory disease? Dermatology 203, 277–279 (2001).
Jeremy, A. H., Holland, D. B., Roberts, S. G., Thomson, K. F. & Cunliffe, W. J. Inflammatory events are involved in acne lesion initiation. J. Invest. Dermatol. 121, 20–27 (2003).
Freedberg, I., Tomic-Canic, M., Komine, M. & Blumenberg, M. Keratins and the keratinocyte activation cycle. J. Invest. Dermatol. 116, 633–640 (2001).
Trivedi, N. R., Gilliland, K. L., Zhao, W., Liu, W. & Thiboutot, D. M. Gene array expression profiling in acne lesions reveals marked upregulation of genes involved in inflammation and matrix remodeling. J. Invest. Dermatol. 126, 1071–1079 (2006).
Kang, S. et al. Inflammation and extracellular matrix degradation mediated by activated transcription factors nuclear factor-κB and activator protein 1 in inflammatory acne lesions in vivo. Am. J. Pathol. 166, 1691–1699 (2005).
Kistowska, M. et al. IL-1β drives inflammatory responses to Propionibacterium acnes in vitro and in vivo. J. Invest. Dermatol. 134, 677–685 (2014).
Choi, J. J. et al. TNF-α increases lipogenesis via JNK and PI3K/Akt pathways in SZ95 human sebocytes. J. Dermatol. Sci. 65, 179–188 (2012).
Kelhälä, H. L. et al. IL-17/Th17 pathway is activated in acne lesions. PLoS ONE 9, e105238 (2014).
Alestas, T., Ganceviciene, R., Fimmel, S., Müller-Decker, K. & Zouboulis, C. C. Enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of leukotriene B4 and prostaglandin E2 are active in sebaceous glands. J. Mol. Med. (Berl.). 84, 75–87 (2006). This paper provides robust evidence on the involvement of inflammation and its pathways on acne pathogenesis.
Zhang, Q., Seltmann, H., Zouboulis, C. C. & Travers, J. B. Activation of platelet-activating factor receptor in SZ95 sebocytes results in inflammatory cytokine and prostaglandin E2 production. Exp. Dermatol. 15, 769–774 (2006).
Neufang, G., Furstenberger, G., Heidt, M., Marks, F. & Müller-Decker, K. Abnormal differentiation of epidermis in transgenic mice constitutively expressing cyclooxygenase-2 in skin. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 7629–7634 (2001).
Zhang, Q., Seltmann, H., Zouboulis, C. C. & Konger, R. L. Involvement of PPARγ in oxidative stress-mediated prostaglandin E2 production in SZ95 human sebaceous gland cells. J. Invest. Dermatol. 126, 42–48 (2006).
Zouboulis, C. C., Seltmann, H. & Alestas, T. Zileuton prevents the activation of the leukotriene pathway and reduces sebaceous lipogenesis. Exp. Dermatol. 19, 148–150 (2010).
Fitz-Gibbon, S. et al. Propionibacterium acnes strain populations in the human skin microbiome associated with acne. J. Invest. Dermatol. 133, 2152–2160 (2013). This article presents the P. acnes taxonomy and its association with acne.
Jasson, F. et al. Different strains of Propionibacterium acnes modulate differently the cutaneous innate immunity. Exp. Dermatol. 22, 587–592 (2013).
Nagy, I. et al. Propionibacterium acnes and lipopolysaccharide induce the expression of antimicrobial peptides and proinflammatory cytokines/chemokines in human sebocytes. Microbes Infect. 8, 2195–2205 (2006).
Lee, D. Y. et al. Sebocytes express functional cathelicidin antimicrobial peptides and can act to kill Propionibacterium acnes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 128, 1863–1866 (2008).
Graham, G. M., Farrar, M. D., Cruse-Sawyer, J. E., Holland, K. T. & Ingham, E. Proinflammatory cytokine production by human keratinocytes stimulated with Propionibacterium acnes and P. acnes GroEL. Br. J. Dermatol. 150, 421–428 (2004).
McDowell, A. et al. Propionibacterium acnes types I and II represent phylogenetically distinct groups. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43, 326–334 (2005).
Nagy, I. et al. Distinct strains of Propionibacterium acnes induce selective human β-defensin-2 and interleukin-8 expression in human keratinocytes through Toll-like receptors. J. Invest. Dermatol. 124, 931–938 (2005).
Schaller, M. et al. Induction of a chemoattractive proinflammatory cytokine response after stimulation of keratinocytes with Propionibacterium acnes and coproporphyrin III. Br. J. Dermatol. 153, 66–71 (2005).
Agak, G. W. et al. Propionibacterium acnes induces an IL-17 response in acne vulgaris that is regulated by vitamin A and vitamin D. J. Invest. Dermatol. 134, 366–373 (2014).
Kistowska, M. et al. Propionibacterium acnes promotes Th17 and Th17/Th1 responses in acne patients. J. Invest. Dermatol. 135, 110–118 (2015).
Li, Z. J. et al. Propionibacterium acnes activates the NLRP3 inflammasome in human sebocytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 134, 2747–2756 (2014). This paper provides the first evidence of the inflammasome regulation by P. acnes.
Kim, J. Review of the innate immune response in acne vulgaris: activation of Toll-like receptor 2 in acne triggers inflammatory cytokine responses. Dermatology 211, 193–198 (2005).
Georgel, P. et al. A Toll-like receptor 2 responsive lipid effector pathway protects mammals against skin infections with Gram-positive bacteria. Infect. Immun. 73, 4512–4521 (2005). This article provides the first evidence of the role of bacterial peptides on sebaceous lipogenesis and inflammatory signalling.
Oeff, M. K. et al. Differential regulation of Toll-like receptor and CD14 pathways by retinoids and corticosteroids in human sebocytes. Dermatology 213, 266 (2006).
Selway, J. L., Kurczab, T., Kealey, T. & Langlands, K. Toll-like receptor 2 activation and comedogenesis: implications for the pathogenesis of acne. BMC Dermatol. 13, 10 (2013).
Bakry, O. A., Samaka, R. M., Sebika, H. & Seleit, I. Toll-like receptor 2 and P. acnes : do they trigger initial acne vulgaris lesions? Anal. Quant. Cytopathol. Histopathol. 36, 100–110 (2014).
Chronnell, C. M. et al. Human β defensin-1 and -2 expression in human pilosebaceous units: upregulation in acne vulgaris lesions. J. Invest. Dermatol. 117, 1120–1125 (2001).
Harrison, W. J., Bull, J. J., Seltmann, H., Zouboulis, C. C. & Philpott, M. P. Expression of lipogenic factors galectin-12, resistin, SREBP-1, and SCD in human sebaceous glands and cultured sebocytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 127, 1309–1317 (2007).
Nakatsuji, T. et al. Antimicrobial property of lauric acid against Propionibacterium acnes: its therapeutic potential for inflammatory acne vulgaris. J. Invest. Dermatol. 129, 2480–2488 (2009).
Nakatsuji, T. et al. Sebum free fatty acids enhance the innate immune defense of human sebocytes by upregulating β-defensin-2 expression. J. Invest. Dermatol. 130, 985–994 (2010).
Bissonnette, R. et al. Changes in serum free testosterone, sleep patterns, and 5-alpha-reductase type I activity influence changes in sebum excretion in female subjects. Skin Res. Technol. 21, 47–53 (2015).
Rasmussen, J. E. Diet and acne. Int. J. Dermatol. 16, 488–492 (1977).
Melnik, B. C. & Schmitz, G. Role of insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1, hyperglycaemic food and milk consumption in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris. Exp. Dermatol. 18, 833–841 (2009).
Downing, D. T., Strauss, J. S. & Pochi, P. E. Changes in skin surface lipid composition induced by severe caloric restriction in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 25, 365–367 (1972).
Pochi, P. E., Downing, D. T. & Strauss, J. S. Sebaceous gland response in man to prolonged total caloric deprivation. J. Invest. Dermatol. 55, 303–309 (1970).
MacDonald, I. Changes in the fatty acid composition of sebum associated with high carbohydrate diets. Nature 203, 1067–1068 (1964).
Cordain, L. et al. Acne vulgaris: a disease of Western civilization. Arch. Dermatol. 138, 1584–1590 (2002). This paper presents clinicoepidemiological evidence of nutrition induction of acne.
Arora, M. K., Seth, S., Dayal, S., Trehan, A. S. & Seth, M. Serum lipid profile in female patients with severe acne vulgaris. Clin. Lab. 60, 1201–1205 (2014).
Lu, P. H. & Hsu, C. H. Body mass index is negatively associated with acne lesion counts in Taiwanese women with post-adolescent acne. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jdv.12754 (2014).
Di Landro, A. et al. Family history, body mass index, selected dietary factors, menstrual history, and risk of moderate to severe acne in adolescents and young adults. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 67, 1129–1135 (2012).
Schäfer, T., Nienhaus, A., Vieluf, D., Berger, J. & Ring, J. Epidemiology of acne in the general population: the risk of smoking. Br. J. Dermatol. 145, 100–104 (2001).
Rombouts, S., Nijsten, T. & Lambert, J. Cigarette smoking and acne in adolescents: results from a cross-sectional study. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 21, 326–333 (2007).
Yang, Y. S. et al. Cigarette smoke-induced interleukin-1 alpha may be involved in the pathogenesis of adult acne. Ann. Dermatol. 26, 11–16 (2014). This article explains how cigarette smoke-induced IL-1α production may be involved in the pathogenesis of adult acne.
Melnik, B., Jansen, T. & Grabbe, S. Abuse of anabolic-androgenic steroids and bodybuilding acne: an underestimated health problem. J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. 5, 110–117 (2007).
Szabó, K. & Kemény, L. Studying the genetic predisposing factors in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris. Hum. Immunol. 72, 766–773 (2011).
Tasli, L. et al. Insulin-like growth factor-I gene polymorphism in acne vulgaris. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 27, 254–257 (2013).
Amr, K., Abdel-Hameed, M., Sayed, K., Nour-Edin, F. & Abdel Hay, R. The Pro12Ala polymorphism of the gene for peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma is associated with a lower Global Acne Grading System score in patients with acne vulgaris. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 39, 741–745 (2014).
Younis, S. & Javed, Q. The interleukin-6 and interleukin-1A gene promoter polymorphism is associated with the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 307, 365–370 (2015).
He, L. et al. Two new susceptibility loci 1q24.2 and 11p11.2 confer risk to severe acne. Nat. Commun. 5, 2870 (2014).
Navarini, A. A. et al. Genome-wide association study identifies three novel susceptibility loci for severe acne vulgaris. Nat. Commun. 5, 4020 (2014). This is a large genome-wide association study in patients with acne compared with healthy controls.
Zhang, M., Qureshi, A. A., Hunter, D. J. & Han, J. A genome-wide association study of severe teenage acne in European Americans. Hum. Genet. 133, 259–264 (2014).
Bek-Thomsen, M., Lomholt, H. B., Scavenius, C., Enghild, J. J. & Brüggemann, H. Proteome analysis of human sebaceous follicle infundibula extracted from healthy and acne-affected skin. PLoS ONE 9, e107908 (2014).
Katsambas, A. D., Cunliffe, W. J. & Zouboulis, C. C. in Pathogenesis and Treatment of Acne and Rosacea (eds Zouboulis, C. C. et al.) 213–221 (Springer, 2014).
Lucky, A. W., Dessinioti, C. & Katsambas, A. D. in Pathogenesis and Treatment of Acne and Rosacea (eds Zouboulis, C. C. et al.) 243–249 (Springer, 2014).
Antoniou, C., Dessinioti, C., Stratigos, A. J. & Katsambas, A. D. Clinical and therapeutic approach to childhood acne: an update. Pediatr. Dermatol. 26, 373–380 (2009).
Eichenfield, L. F. et al. Evidence-based recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of pediatric acne. Pediatrics 131, S163–S186 (2013).
Chiang, A., Hafeez, F. & Maibach, H. I. Skin lesion metrics: role of photography in acne. J. Dermatolog. Treat. 25, 100–105 (2014).
Burke, B. M. & Cunliffe, W. J. The assessment of acne vulgaris — the Leeds technique. Br. J. Dermatol. 111, 83–92 (1984).
Ramli, R., Malik, A. S., Hani, A. F. & Jamil, A. Acne analysis, grading and computational assessment methods: an overview. Skin Res. Technol. 18, 1–14 (2012). A review of the existing computational evaluation methods and current developments.
Lucky, A. W. et al. A multirater validation study to assess the reliability of acne lesion counting. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 35, 559–565 (1996).
Plewig, G. Acne: Morphogenesis and Treatment (Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 1975).
O’brien, S., Lewis, J. & Cunliffe, W. The Leeds revised acne grading system. J. Dermatol. Treat. 9, 215–220 (1998). This article presents the most sophisticated method for assessing classic acne severity and efficacy of acne treatment studies though a global grading of acne lesions.
Tan, J. K. et al. Evaluation of essential clinical components and features of current acne global grading scales. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 69, 754–761 (2013).
Tan, J. et al. Acne severity grading: determining essential clinical components and features using a Delphi consensus. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 67, 187–193 (2012).
Cook, C. H., Centner, R. L. & Michaels, S. E. An acne grading method using photographic standards. Arch. Dermatol. 115, 571–575 (1979).
Rizova, E. & Kligman, A. New photographic techniques for clinical evaluation of acne. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 15, S13–S18 (2001).
Patwardhan, S. V., Kaczvinsky, J. R., Joa, J. F. & Canfield, D. Auto-classification of acne lesions using multimodal imaging. J. Drugs Dermatol. 12, 746–756 (2013).
Stamatas, G. N. & Kollias, N. in Pathogenesis and Treatment of Acne and Rosacea (eds Zouboulis, C. C. et al.) 331–340 (Springer, 2014). This book chapter presents current and future technologies for imaging and assessment of acne lesions.
Dessinioti, C., Antoniou, C. & Katsambas, A. Acneiform eruptions. Clin. Dermatol. 32, 24–34 (2014).
Katsambas, A. D., Dessinioti, C. & Cunliffe, W. J. in Pathogenesis and Treatment of Acne and Rosacea (eds Zouboulis, C. C. et al.) 223–226 (Springer, 2014).
Chen, W. et al. Acne-associated syndromes: models for better understanding of acne pathogenesis. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 25, 637–646 (2011).
Melnik, B. C., John, S. M. & Plewig, G. Acne: risk indicator for increased body mass index and insulin resistance. Acta Derm. Venereol. 93, 644–649 (2013).
Adebamowo, C. A. et al. Milk consumption and acne in teenaged boys. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 58, 787–793 (2008).
Aksu, A. E. et al. Acne: prevalence and relationship with dietary habits in Eskisehir, Turkey. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 26, 1503–1509 (2012).
Kaymak, Y. et al. Dietary glycemic index and glucose, insulin, insulin-like growth factor I, insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3, and leptin levels in patients with acne. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 57, 819–823 (2007).
Smith, R. N., Mann, N. J., Braue, A., Mäkelä inen, H. & Varigos, G. A. The effect of a high-protein, low glycemic-load diet versus a conventional, high glycemic-load diet on biochemical parameters associated with acne vulgaris: a randomized, investigator-masked, controlled trial. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 57, 247–256 (2007). This is one of the first well-planned clinical studies to evaluate the effectiveness of fatty acids on acne development and severity.
Kwon, H. H. et al. Clinical and histological effect of a low glycaemic load diet in treatment of acne vulgaris in Korean patients: a randomized, controlled trial. Acta Derm. Venereol. 92, 241–246 (2012).
Jung, J. Y. et al. Effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acid and gamma-linolenic acid on acne vulgaris: a randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Acta Derm. Venereol. 94, 521–525 (2014).
Capitanio, B. et al. Underestimated clinical features of postadolescent acne. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 63, 782–788 (2010).
Gollnick, H. et al. Management of acne: a report from a Global Alliance to Improve Outcomes in Acne. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 49, S1–S37 (2003).
Strauss, J. S. et al. Guidelines of care for acne vulgaris management. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 56, 651–663 (2007).
Nast, A. et al. European evidence-based (S3) guidelines for the treatment of acne. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 26, S1–S29 (2012). This paper presents guidelines for acne treatment and a current review on acne aetiopathogenesis.
Dréno, B. et al. European recommendations on the use of oral antibiotics for acne. Eur. J. Dermatol. 14, 391–399 (2004).
Layton, A. M., Dreno, B., Gollnick, H. P. & Zouboulis, C. C. A review of the European Directive for prescribing systemic isotretinoin for acne vulgaris. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 20, 773–776 (2006).
Williams, H. C., Dellavalle, R. P. & Garner, S. Acne vulgaris. Lancet 379, 361–372 (2012).
Del Rosso, J. Q. & Leyden, J. J. Status report on antibiotic resistance: implications for the dermatologist. Dermatol. Clin. 25, 127–132 (2007).
Chien, A. L., Voorhees, J. J. & Kang, S. Fitzpatrick’s Dermatology in Medicine (McGraw-Hill, 2008).
Benkoussa, M., Brand, C., Delmotte, M. H., Formstecher, P. & Lefebvre, P. Retinoic acid receptors inhibit AP1 activation by regulating extracellular signal-regulated kinase and CBP recruitment to an AP1-responsive promoter. Mol. Cell. Biol. 22, 4522–4534 (2002).
Liu, P. T., Krutzik, S. R., Kim, J. & Modlin, R. L. Cutting edge: all-trans retinoic acid down-regulates TLR2 expression and function. J. Immunol. 174, 2467–2470 (2005).
Culp, L., Moradi Tuchayi, S., Alinia, H. & Feldman, S. R. Tolerability of topical retinoids: are there clinically meaningful differences among topical retinoids? J. Cutan. Med. Surg. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1203475415591117 (2015).
Tanghetti, E. A. & Popp, K. F. A current review of topical benzoyl peroxide: new perspectives on formulation and utilization. Dermatol. Clin. 27, 17–24 (2009).
Fakhouri, T., Yentzer, B. A. & Feldman, S. R. Advancement in benzoyl peroxide-based acne treatment: methods to increase both efficacy and tolerability. J. Drugs Dermatol. 8, 657–661 (2009).
Jacobs, A., Starke, G., Rosumeck, S. & Nast, A. Systematic review on the rapidity of the onset of action of topical treatments in the therapy of mild-to-moderate acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol. 170, 557–564 (2014). A systematic review of new results in the comparative speed of acne improvement with different agents.
Zouboulis, C. C., Fischer, T. C., Wohlrab, J., Barnard, J. & Alió, A. B. Study of the efficacy, tolerability, and safety of 2 fixed-dose combination gels in the management of acne vulgaris. Cutis 84, 223–229 (2009).
Zouboulis, C. C. et al. A multicentre, single-blind, randomized comparison of a fixed clindamycin phosphate/tretinoin gel formulation (Velac) applied once daily and a clindamycin lotion formulation (Dalacin T) applied twice daily in the topical treatment of acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol. 143, 498–505 (2000).
Abdel-Naser, M. B. & Zouboulis, C. C. Clindamycin phosphate/tretinoin gel formulation in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 9, 2931–2937 (2008).
Aslam, I., Fleischer, A. & Feldman, S. Emerging drugs for the treatment of acne. Expert Opin. Emerg. Drugs 20, 91–101 (2015). This paper reviews new anti-acne drugs.
Dréno, B. et al. Adult female acne: a new paradigm. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 27, 1063–1070 (2013).
Gollnick, H. P., Graupe, K. & Zaumseil, R. P. Azelaic acid 15% gel in the treatment of acne vulgaris. Combined results of two double-blind clinical comparative studies. J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. 2, 841–847 (2004).
Thielitz, A. et al. A randomized investigator-blind parallel-group study to assess efficacy and safety of azelaic acid 15% gel versus adapalene 0.1% gel in the treatment and maintenance treatment of female adult acne. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 29, 789–796 (2015).
Garner, S. E. et al. Minocycline for acne vulgaris: efficacy and safety. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 8, CD002086 (2012).
Fleischer, A. B., Dinehart, S., Stough, D. & Plott, R. T. Safety and efficacy of a new extended-release formulation of minocycline. Cutis 78, 21–31 (2006).
Dreno, B. et al. Antibiotic stewardship in dermatology: limiting antibiotic use in acne. Eur. J. Dermatol. 24, 330–334 (2014).
Lee, Y. H., Liu, G., Thiboutot, D. M., Leslie, D. L. & Kirby, J. S. A retrospective analysis of the duration of oral antibiotic therapy for the treatment of acne among adolescents: investigating practice gaps and potential cost-savings. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 71, 70–76 (2014).
Thevarajah, S., Balkrishnan, R., Camacho, F. T., Feldman, S. R. & Fleischer, A. B. Trends in prescription of acne medication in the US: shift from antibiotic to non-antibiotic treatment. J. Dermatolog. Treat. 16, 224–228 (2005).
Davis, S. A., Sandoval, L. F., Gustafson, C. J., Feldman, S. R. & Cordoro, K. M. Treatment of preadolescent acne in the United States: an analysis of nationally representative data. Pediatr. Dermatol. 30, 689–694 (2013).
Arrington, E. A., Patel, N. S., Gerancher, K. & Feldman, S. R. Combined oral contraceptives for the treatment of acne: a practical guide. Cutis 90, 83–90 (2012). This is a concise paper on the available combined oral contraceptives for acne treatment from the points of view of both the dermatologists and the gynaecologists.
Landis, E. T. et al. Isotretinoin and oral contraceptive use in female acne patients varies by physician specialty: analysis of data from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey. J. Dermatolog. Treat. 23, 272–277 (2012).
Zouboulis, C. C. & Bettoli, V. Management of severe acne. Br. J. Dermatol. 172, S27–S36 (2015).
Brown, J., Farquhar, C., Lee, O., Toomath, R. & Jepson, R. G. Spironolactone versus placebo or in combination with steroids for hirsutism and/or acne. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2, CD000194 (2009).
Sandoval, L. F., Hartel, J. K. & Feldman, S. R. Current and future evidence-based acne treatment: a review. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 15, 173–192 (2014).
Leyden, J. J., McGinley, K. J. & Foglia, A. N. Qualitative and quantitative changes in cutaneous bacteria associated with systemic isotretinoin therapy for acne conglobata. J. Invest. Dermatol. 86, 390–393 (1986).
Wessels, F., Anderson, A. N. & Kropman, K. The cost-effectiveness of isotretinoin in the treatment of acne. Part 1. A meta-analysis of effectiveness literature. S. Afr. Med. J. 89, 780–784 (1999).
Zouboulis, C. C. The truth behind this undeniable efficacy — recurrence rates and relapse risk factors of acne treatment with oral isotretinoin. Dermatology 212, 99–100 (2006).
Leyden, J. J., Del Rosso, J. Q. & Baum, E. W. The use of isotretinoin in the treatment of acne vulgaris: clinical considerations and future directions. J. Clin. Aesthet. Dermatol. 7, S3–S21 (2014).
Rohrback, J. M., Fleischer, A. B., Krowchuk, D. P. & Feldman, S. R. Depression is not common in isotretinoin-treated acne patients. J. Dermatolog. Treat. 15, 252 (2004).
Jordan, A. Y. et al. Does the teratogenicity of isotretinoin outweigh its benefits? J. Dermatolog. Treat. 16, 190–192 (2005).
Webster, G. F., Leyden, J. J. & Gross, J. A. Comparative pharmacokinetic profiles of a novel isotretinoin formulation (isotretinoin-Lidose) and the innovator isotretinoin formulation: a randomized, 4-treatment, crossover study. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 69, 762–767 (2013).
Barnes, L. E., Al-Dabagh, A., Huang, W. W. & Feldman, S. R. Common reasons why acne patients call the office. Dermatol. Online J. 20, 22609 (2014).
Fleischer, A. B., Simpson, J. K., McMichael, A. & Feldman, S. R. Are there racial and sex differences in the use of oral isotretinoin for acne management in the United States? J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 49, 662–666 (2003).
Kosaka, S., Kawana, S., Zouboulis, C. C., Hasan, T. & Ortel, B. Targeting of sebocytes by aminolevulinic acid-dependent photosensitization. Photochem. Photobiol. 82, 453–457 (2006).
Morton, C. A., Szeimies, R. M., Sidoroff, A. & Braathen, L. R. European guidelines for topical photodynamic therapy part 2: emerging indications — field cancerization, photorejuvenation and inflammatory/infective dermatoses. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 27, 672–679 (2013).
Zheng, W. et al. Evidence-based review of photodynamic therapy in the treatment of acne. Eur. J. Dermatol. 24, 444–456 (2014). A helpful recent review on photodynamic therapy for the treatment of acne.
Taylor, M. N. & Gonzalez, M. L. The practicalities of photodynamic therapy in acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol. 160, 1140–1148 (2009).
Hamilton, F. L. et al. Laser and other light therapies for the treatment of acne vulgaris: systematic review. Br. J. Dermatol. 160, 1273–1285 (2009).
Yentzer, B. A. et al. An exploratory study of adherence to topical benzoyl peroxide in patients with acne vulgaris. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 60, 879–880 (2009).
Balkrishnan, R., Kulkarni, A. S., Cayce, K. & Feldman, S. R. Predictors of healthcare outcomes and costs related to medication use in patients with acne in the United States. Cutis 77, 251–255 (2006).
Lott, R., Taylor, S. L., O’Neill, J. L., Krowchuk, D. P. & Feldman, S. R. Medication adherence among acne patients: a review. J. Cosmet. Dermatol. 9, 160–166 (2010).
Yentzer, B. A. et al. A randomized controlled pilot study of strategies to increase adherence in teenagers with acne vulgaris. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 64, 793–795 (2011). This study shows the importance of frequent visits during treatment in adherence improvement.
Feldman, S. R. & Chen, D. M. How patients experience and manage dryness and irritation from acne treatment. J. Drugs Dermatol. 10, 605–608 (2011).
Feneran, A. N., Kaufman, W. S., Dabade, T. S. & Feldman, S. R. Retinoid plus antimicrobial combination treatments for acne. Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol. 4, 79–92 (2011).
Yentzer, B. A. et al. Simplifying regimens promotes greater adherence and outcomes with topical acne medications: a randomized controlled trial. Cutis 86, 103–108 (2010).
Tan, X. et al. Medication adherence, healthcare costs and utilization associated with acne drugs in Medicaid enrollees with acne vulgaris. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 14, 243–251 (2013). This large-scale study offers useful data about adherence to acne medication.
Halvorsen, J. A. et al. Suicidal ideation, mental health problems, and social impairment are increased in adolescents with acne: a population-based study. J. Invest. Dermatol. 131, 363–370 (2011). This study offers helpful information about the psychological impact of acne.
Uhlenhake, E., Yentzer, B. A. & Feldman, S. R. Acne vulgaris and depression: a retrospective examination. J. Cosmet. Dermatol. 9, 59–63 (2010).
Layton, A. M., Henderson, C. A. & Cunliffe, W. J. A clinical evaluation of acne scarring and its incidence. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 19, 303–308 (1994).
Zouboulis, C. C., Zouridaki, E., Rosenberger, A. & Dalkowski, A. Current developments and uses of cryosurgery in the treatment of keloids and hypertrophic scars. Wound Repair Regen. 10, 98–102 (2002).
Jacob, C. I., Dover, J. S. & Kaminer, M. S. Acne scarring: a classification system and review of treatment options. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 45, 109–117 (2001).
Rivera, A. E. Acne scarring: a review and current treatment modalities. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 59, 659–676 (2008). A comprehensive review of the current treatment options for acne scars.
Motley, R. J. & Finlay, A. Y. How much disability is caused by acne? Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 14, 194–198 (1989).
Cunliffe, W. J. Acne and unemployment. Br. J. Dermatol. 115, 386 (1986).
Tasoula, E. et al. The impact of acne vulgaris on quality of life and psychic health in young adolescents in Greece. Results of a population survey. An. Bras. Dermatol. 87, 862–869 (2012).
Hayashi, N. et al. A cross-sectional analysis of quality of life in Japanese acne patients using the Japanese version of Skindex-16. J. Dermatol. 31, 971–976 (2004).
Tedeschi, A., Dall’Oglio, F., Micali, G., Schwartz, R. A. & Janniger, C. K. Corrective camouflage in pediatric dermatology. Cutis 79, 110–112 (2007).
Loney, T., Standage, M. & Lewis, S. Not just ‘skin deep’: psychosocial effects of dermatological-related social anxiety in a sample of acne patients. J. Health Psychol. 13, 47–54 (2008).
Mallon, E. et al. The quality of life in acne: a comparison with general medical conditions using generic questionnaires. Br. J. Dermatol. 140, 672–676 (1999).
Ohayon, M. M. Epidemiology of depression and its treatment in the general population. J. Psychiatr. Res. 41, 207–213 (2007).
Kellett, S. C. & Gawkrodger, D. J. The psychological and emotional impact of acne and the effect of treatment with isotretinoin. Br. J. Dermatol. 140, 273–282 (1999).
Gupta, M. A. & Gupta, A. K. Depression and suicidal ideation in dermatology patients with acne, alopecia areata, atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. Br. J. Dermatol. 139, 846–850 (1998).
Goodman, G. J. Post-acne scarring: a short review of its pathophysiology. Australas. J. Dermatol. 42, 84–90 (2001).
Zouboulis, C. C. & Böhm, M. Neuroendocrine regulation of sebocytes — a pathogenetic link between stress and acne. Exp. Dermatol. 13, S31–S35 (2004).
Schulpis, K., Georgala, S., Papakonstantinou, E. D. & Michas, T. Psychological and sympatho-adrenal status in patients with cystic acne. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 13, 24–27 (1999).
Jones-Caballero, M., Chren, M. M., Soler, B., Pedrosa, E. & Peñas, P. F. Quality of life in mild to moderate acne: relationship to clinical severity and factors influencing change with treatment. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 21, 219–226 (2007).
Newton, J. N., Mallon, E., Klassen, A., Ryan, T. J. & Finlay, A. Y. The effectiveness of acne treatment: an assessment by patients of the outcome of therapy. Br. J. Dermatol. 137, 563–567 (1997).
Murray, C. J. et al. GBD 2010: design, definitions, and metrics. Lancet 380, 2063–2066 (2012).
Hay, R. J. et al. The global burden of skin disease in 2010: an analysis of the prevalence and impact of skin conditions. J. Invest. Dermatol. 134, 1527–1534 (2014).
Karimkhani, C. et al. Global burden of skin disease as reflected in Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. JAMA Dermatol. 150, 945–951 (2014). This article shows the imbalance of research devoted to different skin diseases and its burden.
Karimkhani, C. et al. Comparing cutaneous research funded by the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases with 2010 Global Burden of Disease results. PLoS ONE 9, e102122 (2014).
Zouboulis, C. C. Zileuton, a new efficient and safe systemic anti-acne drug. Dermatoendocrinol. 1, 188–192 (2009). The article presents the effectiveness of a systemic anti-inflammatory leukotriene 5 inhibitor on acne.
Zouboulis, C. C. et al. A new concept for acne therapy: a pilot study with zileuton, an oral 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor. Arch. Dermatol. 139, 668–670 (2003).
Zouboulis, C. C., Saborowski, A. & Boschnakow, A. Zileuton, an oral 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor, directly reduces sebum production. Dermatology 210, 36–38 (2005).
Sakamoto, F. H. et al. Selective photothermolysis to target sebaceous glands: theoretical estimation of parameters and preliminary results using a free electron laser. Lasers Surg. Med. 44, 175–183 (2012).
Dréno, B. et al. Development and evaluation of a Global Acne Severity Scale (GEA Scale) suitable for France and Europe. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 25, 43–48 (2011).
Department of Health and Human Services. Acne vulgaris: developing drugs for treatment. FDA [online], (2005).
Degitz, K., Placzek, M., Borelli, C. & Plewig, G. Pathophysiology of acne. J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. 5, 316–323 (2007).
Zouboulis, C. C. et al. What is the pathogenesis of acne? Exp. Dermatol. 14, 143–153 (2005).
Fresno Contreras, M. J., Jimé nez Soriano, M. M. & Ramírez Diéguez, A. In vitro percutaneous absorption of all-trans retinoic acid applied in free form or encapsulated in stratum corneum lipid liposomes. Int. J. Pharm. 297, 134–145 (2005).
Jain, A. K. et al. Adapalene loaded solid lipid nanoparticles gel: an effective approach for acne treatment. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 121, 222–229 (2014).
Leyden, J. New developments in topical antimicrobial therapy for acne. J. Drugs Dermatol. 7, S8–S11 (2008).
Geria, A. N. & Scheinfeld, N. S. Talarozole, a selective inhibitor of P450 mediated all-trans retinoic acid for the treatment of psoriasis and acne. Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs 9, 1228–1237 (2008).
Stecová, J. et al. Cyproterone acetate loading to lipid nanoparticles for topical acne treatment: particle characterisation and skin uptake. Pharm. Res. 24, 991–1000 (2007).
Trifu, V. et al. Cortexolone 17α-propionate 1% cream, a new potent antiandrogen for topical treatment of acne vulgaris. A pilot randomized, double-blind comparative study versus placebo and tretinoin 0•05% cream. Br. J. Dermatol. 165, 177–183 (2011).
Soh, S. F. et al. Determination of androgen receptor degradation enhancer ASC J9® in mouse sera and organs with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 88, 117–122 (2014).
Rico, J., Quiring, J., Hollenbach, S., Enloe, C. & Stasko, N. Phase 2 study of efficacy and safety of SB204 in the treatment of acne vulgaris. J. Invest. Dermatol. 134, LB838 (2014).
Yoon, J. Y., Kwon, H. H., Min, S. U., Thiboutot, D. M. & Suh, D. H. Epigallocatechin-3 gallate improves acne in humans by modulating intracellular molecular targets and inhibiting P. acnes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 133, 429–440 (2013).
Eisinger, M. et al. A melanocortin receptor 1 and 5 antagonist inhibits sebaceous gland differentiation and the production of sebum-specific lipids. J. Dermatol. Sci. 63, 23–32 (2011).
Böhm, M., Ehrchen, J. & Luger, T. A. Beneficial effects of the melanocortin analogue Nle4-D-Phe7-α MSH in acne vulgaris. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 28, 108–111 (2014).
Melo, M. N., Dugourd, D. & Castanho, M. A. Omiganan pentahydrochloride in the front line of clinical applications of antimicrobial peptides. Recent Pat. Antiinfect. Drug Discov. 1, 201–207 (2006).
Nakatsuji, T. et al. Vaccination targeting a surface sialidase of P. acnes: implication for new treatment of acne vulgaris. PLoS ONE 3, e1551 (2008).
Mitkov, M., Pehlivanov, B. & Terzieva, D. Metformin versus rosiglitazone in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 126, 93–98 (2006).
Huang, W. C. et al. Anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties of capric acid against Propionibacterium acnes: a comparative study with lauric acid. J. Dermatol. Sci. 73, 232–240 (2014).
Morganti, P. et al. Topical clindamycin 1% versus linoleic acid-rich phosphatidylcholine and nicotinamide 4% in the treatment of acne: a multicentre-randomized trial. Int. J. Cosmet. Sci. 33, 467–476 (2011).
Letawe, C., Boone, M. & Piérard, G. E. Digital image analysis of the effect of topically applied linoleic acid on acne microcomedones. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 23, 56–58 (1998).
Pavicic, T., Wollenweber, U., Farwick, M. & Korting, H. C. Anti-microbial and -inflammatory activity and efficacy of phytosphingosine: an in vitro and in vivo study addressing acne vulgaris. Int. J. Cosmet. Sci. 29, 181–190 (2007).